Edge devices are pieces of equipment that serve to transmit data between the local network and the cloud. Note that this is a metric used for repairable systems. Try it yourself with a 30-day free trial. Not to worry, we've compiled a list of the top, most common manufacturing KPIs (key performance indicators) our users have built using Klipfolio. It essentially tracks how much of a manufacturer’s production capacity is currently being utilized. These KPIs are aligned with Lean initiatives–specifically, Cultural Transformation, Continuous Improvement, elimination of all Wastes, associates becoming process and problem solvers at … Profit Per Employee = net income for the past twelve months / current number of full-time equivalent employees. Scrap Rate = scrap material / total materials intake (amount of material put into the process). Mean Time To Repair = sum of unplanned maintenance time spent on repair / total number of failures, Non-compliance Events Per Year is a measure of the number of times a plant or facility operated outside the guidelines of normal regulatory compliance rules during a one-year period. Labor as a percentage of cost = Labor / Gross Sales. Internal KPIs are tied to internal goals and are used to measure optimization efforts. Lean manufacturing focuses on eliminating sources of waste and continuously looking for ways to improve the organization. START DRIVING DECISIONS WITH MACHINE DATA. This can highlight a production scheduling issue. An Internal KPI is one of the most important indicators of the current performance level of an individual in achieving internal goals. Demand forecasting is a metric that helps manufacturers understand the amount of raw material they need to fulfill their expected customer demand. These sample KPIs reflect common metrics for both departments and industries. 9. First Pass Yield = number of “good” units completed (excluding scrap/rework) / total number of units entering the process, Health and Safety Incident Rate, also known as the total case incident rate (TCIR), is the number of work-related injuries per 100 full-time workers during a one year period, Health And Safety Incident Rate  =  (Number of OSHA Recordable injuries and illnesses X 200,000) / Employee total hours worked = Total Case Incident Rate. KPIs in manufacturing are quantifiable metrics that offer insight into business performance. Inventory Turns = cost of goods sold (COGS) / average inventory during same period. The manufacturing industry is a leader among data collectors. KPIs let manufacturers know whether they are on course for success, if they are growing, and where issues may be present within their businesses. This document defines over 200 Manufacturing & Production KPIs, including metric definitions for Facility Management, Manufacturing & Assembly, Production Planning and more. Some companies have technicians walking around the plant checking gauges, filling out forms, and writing down operation and maintenance history for machines. 8. If you have made it this far, you may be interested in our guide on the manufacturing analytics journey, which documents how manufacturers can progress in their analytical maturity and drive more advanced manufacturing programs. 11. Before we move any further, let’s quickly look at what OEE is and why it’s one of the best universal KPIs to measure and improve in manufacturing. Together, the sum of these KPIs tells a story about the performance of the line, plant, and/or company. Energy Cost Per Unit = Sum of all energy costs / Units or Volume of Production. KPIs are assorted variables that organizations use to assess, analyze and track manufacturing processes. The digital... Common Myths About Industrial Automation, Debunked. Mean Time To Repair is the basic measure of the maintainability of repairable items. OEE = Availability X Performance X Quality, 18. They are able to translate between the protocols, or languages, used by local devices into the protocols used by the cloud where the data will be further processed. It only really comes into play when companies are … Cycle Time is how long it takes to make a part or how long it takes the machine to complete a cycle. Scheduled downtime and regular maintenance can reduce the number of unscheduled outages, giving you greater control and reliability in your manufacturing process. To reduce costs, manufacturers can identify activities that are not adding value to the operation. This is important for showing who the report is for. You can calculate Rolling Throughput Yield by multiplying the First Pass Yield of each process. In the Calculation Area, right-click the measure that serves as the base measure (value) of the KPI, and then click Delete KPI.. Maintenance cost per unit “is total maintenance cost divided by the number of produced units in the measurement period. Production Attainment measures the percentage of time a target level of production is attained within a specified schedule. Also known as the cash-conversion cycle, Cash To Cash Cycle Time is the the number of days between paying for raw materials and components and getting paid for a product. This metric is the number of times the plant violated regulatory compliance rules during the year. Utilization is the proportion of time that manufacturing equipment is used. Material costing, usage is a metric that compares the amount of material expected to make the number of units produced, against the amount of material actually used to make those units. Cycle time = Process End Time – Process Start Time. Manufacturing Cost As A Percentage Of Revenue = total manufacturing costs / overall revenue, Manufacturing Cost Per Unit is the breakdown of all the fixed and variable costs that are encountered in the process of producing a single product, Manufacturing Cost Per Unit =  manufacturing costs / total number of units produced during a given period. Time To Productivity = date that new hire achieves productivity - start date of new hire. Percentage Complete * Sale Price – (Costs to date / Cost Estimate). Overall Equipment Effectiveness = Availability x Performance x Quality. Unplanned Capacity Expenditure = total capacity expenditures - planned capacity expenditures. The difference is in our technology. Capacity utilization measures how much a line, plant, or factory uses its total production capacity. Capacity Utilization = (Actual output/Maximum possible output)*100. After trying to track shopfloor efficiency with pen and paper, AccuRounds chose to implement a machine monitoring system with the help of MachineMetrics. Schedule Attainment is the the percentage of time a target level of production is attained within a specified schedule of time. Divide actual output by maximum capacity and multiply the result by 100 to calculate asset utilization. Unscheduled Downtime is simply the sum of all unscheduled downtime within a  given period. Here’s another product kpi dashboard — Someka’s Manufacturing KPI Dashboard. In the Calculation Area, right-click the measure that serves as the base measure (value) of the KPI, and then click Edit KPI Settings.. Delete a KPI. 7. Quality Units/Total Units Produced = FPY Rate. This can highlight a production scheduling issue. What are Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)? 3. This will help you understand whether you could fulfill an expansion with existing capacity, or if you need to adjust your production. Manufacturing KPIs can highlight progress towards goals set at various levels of a company. Return On Assets = net income / average total assets. But, What is an Edge Device? and divides that value by the number of units of product produced. For example, if you have the potential to significantly expand orders, you should check your capacity utilization before agreeing to deliver the product. Scrap Rate is the percentage of failed assemblies or material that cannot be repaired or restored, and is therefore condemned and discarded, which represents a cost to the organization. Plant downtime = 1 – (Plant run time/Total available time to run or produce). is a metric used for repairable systems. is, “the difference between what an asset is capable of producing and what it actually produces.” To calculate the opportunity gap KPI, subtract maximum capacity from the actual output. Customer Return Rate = (return customers / total customers) * 100. incidents recorded during a set period of time. Expressed mathematically, it is the total, time for failures divided by the total number of corrective maintenance actions for failures during a given period of time.”, measures “value-added time as a percentage of throughput time.”. Key performance indicators (KPIs) are a set of performance measurements that demonstrate how effectively an organization is achieving key objectives. Companies with a high turnover ratio are more efficient than those with a lower turnover. What is Manufacturing Cost As A Percentage Of Revenue? Each of the KPIs needs to be formulated with the levels of management in mind. Material costing, usage  = Materials Used/Materials Expected. Mean time between failure (MTBF) “is the predicted elapsed time between inherent failures of a mechanical or electronic system, during normal system operation.”  Calculate this metric by taking the average time between the system’s failures. Financial KPI (Key Performance Indicator) is a measurable value that indicates how well a company is doing regarding generating revenue and profits. This is because a KPI that is integral to one manager will not be important or relevant fo… This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. It measures how well you are using your installed capacity. Overall Equipment Effectiveness - OEE Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) is a performance metric or KPI that combines the measurement of plant availability, performance efficiency and quality of a specific plant, equipment or process. (standard quantity of material allowed for production – actual quantity used) × standard price per unit of material. Expressed mathematically, it is the total corrective maintenance time for failures divided by the total number of corrective maintenance actions for failures during a given period of time.”. Calculate on-time delivery by dividing the number of units ordered by the number of orders delivered on-time. In manufacturing, it measures the time taken for a product to pass through all machines, processes and cycles to become a finished product. Manufacturing cycle time. Mean Time Between Failure is the predicted elapsed time between inherent failures of a mechanical or electronic system, during normal system operation. 28. In today’s world of interconnected everything, too many manufacturers are finding themselves a day late and a dollar short when it comes to quality, on-time delivery, and inventory management. Sensor data, employee movement tracking, downtime data, predictive maintenance-related data, demand—there are a lot of opportunities to collect information within a manufacturing facility. No matter the industry you operate in, the goal is to produce more for less, and understanding your manufacturing processes is … Because by the time the information is collected and reports are cobbled together and delivered to the top floor, the data is already obsolete. The gap between the time when information is collected and when that information is used for... Digital Transformation 101 for Oil and Gas OEMs -... Digital transformation technologies in the oil and gas industry have received a lukewarm reception from stakeholders across the sector, which has resulted in approximately 53% of companies postponing their adoption of these powerful tools. It includes raw materials, labor, and overhead costs associated with products that are in mid-production. Perhaps the biggest change today is how data is collected. Maximum capacity – Actual Output = Opportunity Gap. We’ve assembled a collection of sample Key Performance Indicators for you to use as a starting point when building scorecards. Predictive Analytics in Manufacturing: Use Cases and... guide on the manufacturing analytics journey, 8 Wastes of Lean Manufacturing | MachineMetrics. It measures the extent to which a manufacturer reaches its targeted production output. As an industry leader in metal manufacturing, KPI Metals is proud to capitalize on our team’s extensive experience, our accessibility to cutting edge software and machinery, as well as our commitment to our customers. Production Attainment = total number of units manufactured by the company / target production output over a certain period of time, Production-to-Market Lead-time, also known simply as lead time, is the amount of time it takes to build and ship a product if all the materials are available. To complete this calculation, you’ll need to know both actual output and maximum capacity. Labor usage is a metric that calculates how much of the time someone is working is spent working versus how much time is spent idle, or otherwise. It is used by ERP and MES systems for scheduling, purchasing and production costing. Calculate this metric by subtracting the process start time from the process end time. Machine Downtime Rate = (total uptime) / (total uptime + total downtime). and divides that value by the number of units of product produced. Remember, deleting a KPI does not delete the base measure or target measure (if one was defined). Opportunity gap is a metric related to asset utilization. 23. This metric calculates how much you’ve saved by spending. 15. Plant run time = Total available time to run – scheduled and unscheduled downtime/stoppages. Takt Time is the required product assembly duration that is needed to match the demand. Also known as throughput yield, First Pass Yield is defined as the number of good units (that do not require rework) coming out of a process divided by the number of units going into that process over a specified period of time. Mean time to repair “is a basic measure of the maintainability of repairable items. Percentage Planned Maintenance = # of planned maintenance hours ÷ # of total maintenance hours × 100. It measures the efficiency with which a manufacturer uses its equipment and other assets to drive revenue. This data-driven practice... What is an Edge Device and Why Is It Essential... What is an Edge Device? Plant uptime and plant downtime measure production performance at the plant level. Originally published on Modern Machine Shop. Takt Time = Production Time / Customer Demand. The Cycle Time Formula is an essential manufacturing KPI to understand in manufacturing. Throughput Rate = total good units produced / time. New Product Introduction Rate measures the amount of time it takes to design, develop, and ramp up production for a new product. The Real Cost of Downtime in Manufacturing, Availability = actual production time / planned production time, Performance = actual production rate / ideal production rate, Quality = good parts / total parts produced. Key performance indicators, herein after referred as KPIs, are calculated within a manufacturing execution system. Other companies have started... Is Your System Smart? Use this value to multiply by total downtime and find the total number of units you failed to produce during planned production hours. By factoring in, For decades manufacturers have used data as a way to gain a competitive edge. Return On Assets is a profitability ratio that provides how much profit a company is able to generate from its assets. Capacity Utilization is the rate at which potential output levels are being met or used. These production KPI examples will help you create a KPI dashboard for your manufacturing company. These fluctuations in perception are to be expected, though. Overall Operating Efficiency is similar to OEE except it takes unscheduled time into account, looking at Total Operations Time as the maximum. This manufacturing KPI is the rate of how many units on average a machine, cell or line is producing over time, i.e. Monitoring this KPI will give you insight into production efficiency. Demand Forecasting works to predict customer demand to optimize supply choices. How to Calculate Manufacturing Cost As A Percentage Of Revenue, How to Calculate Manufacturing Cost Per Unit, How to Calculate Mean Time Between Failure, How to Calculate Non-compliance Events Per Year, How to Calculate Overall Equipment Effectiveness, Overall Operating Efficiency is similar to OEE, How to Calculate Overall Operating Efficiency (OOE), How to Calculate Percentage Maintenance Planned, How to Calculate Production-to-market Lead-time, Total Manufacturing Cost Per Unit Excluding Materials. It calculates how many of an organization’s hours are overtime, versus standard hours. “is total maintenance cost divided by the number of produced units in the measurement period. Calculate this metric by subtracting the process start time from the process end time. It helps manufacturers ensure that their capacity matches the existing customer demand. Employee Turnover is the number or percentage of workers who leave an organization and are replaced by new employees. Calculate factory utilization by dividing actual factory utilization by your total productive capacity. Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) is a way to measure manufacturing productivity. In order for... How OEE Software Improves Production Efficiency. What is an Edge Device and Why Is It Essential for IoT? However, to be successful means the company must first determine its existing productivity rate. Type : KPI Encyclopedia It is a straightforward system that measures a machine’s performance and productivity. 10. Manufacturing Cycle Efficiency measures “value-added time as a percentage of throughput time.”, Manufacturing Cycle Efficiency = Value-added time / Throughput time. Cycle time is the average time between process completions. Simply the number of non-compliance events within a given year. Cash-to-Cash Cycle Time measures the time between the manufacturing plant purchase or inventory purchase, and the collection of payments from the sale of the inventory produced or purchased. Plant Downtime, also known as idle time, off line period or production downtime, is any time in which a manufacturing plant is off-line and not producing any products or adding value to the business and its customers. Asset Turnover is the value of sales or revenues generated. Total Cycle Time is the total time from when an operation begins to when the operation ends. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. 25. Energy Cost Per Unit is a measure of the cost of energy (electricity, steam, oil, gas, etc.) . The oil and gas industry’s competition with alternate, green energy sources, and calls for more accountability from the public have led to the industry embracing digital transformation technologies to spur growth and innovation. A manufacturing company requires efficient use of inventory, equipment, and personnel to develop its products. Utilization = (plant output in a given time period x 100) / maximum output in a  given time period. Maintenance Cost Per Unit = total maintenance cost / number of produced units in measurement period. Manufacturing KPI’s examples in industry are paramount in the measurement of product quality, process quality, inventory control, measuring manufacturing time, overall production, preparation time, customer and employee satisfaction, and much more. Inventory Accuracy =  number of counted items that perfectly match every aspect of the record / total number of items counted. This website uses cookies to improve your experience. Throughput is the amount of material or items passing through a system or process. Material Yield Variance is the difference between the actual amount of material used and the standard amount expected to be used, multiplied by the standard cost of the materials. Labor As A Percentage Of Cost is the percentage value of money spent on labor costs against the total revenue of the company during a specific period. KPI meaning - A one or two sentence description of what this safety KPI is used for. Divide actual output by maximum capacity and multiply the result by 100 to calculate asset utilization. 22. Downtime is considered the largest source of lost production time for manufacturing, which makes this an incredibly important metric. Production Attainment = Periods when Production Target Met/Total Time Periods in Schedule. In addition to the number of events, you may want to measure the length of time the plant was non-compliant, the reasons for non-compliance, and the way the event was resolved. While cycle time is the measure of the time it takes between two points, throughput should be monitored in real-time since, when throughput decreases, it is usually indicative of an issue on the line. Manufacturing Cycle Efficiency = value-added production time / total cycle time. Production Attainment is the number of units manufactured by the company divided by target production output over a certain period of time, as a percentage. Rejects, or customer returns, measures how often customers reject products or request returns because they received bad product. A good performance measure is defined as “objective evidence of the degree to which a performance result is occurring over time”. Machine Downtime Rate is any time the equipment is not available for production, including planned and unplanned downtime. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. Machine Set Up Time = Time machine is prepared for next run - time completed last part of previous run. 7. The goal of this post is to explain how to calculate 34 manufacturing KPIs: 1. On-time Delivery = on time units / total units. 17. Manufacturing KPIs. Overtime as a percentage of total hours is a straightforward metric. It is a similar manufacturing KPI to that of first pass yield, but takes into consideration rework. First pass yield (FPY) is the number of units without rework or scrap defects exiting a process divided by the number of units entering the same process over a set time period. When pen-and-paper methods of tracking job efficiency left AccuRounds’ engineers and managers in the dark, the shop switched to MachineMetrics. Profit Per Employee is the measure of net Income for the past twelve months divided by the current number of full-time equivalent employees. KPI dashboard templates are available in tabular, pie chart and graph formats for better visualization. Key performance indicators (KPIs) are calculations that help someone answer the question “How is X doing?”. Work-in-process is a company's partially finished goods waiting for completion and eventual sale. There’s some controversy around which measure is more valuable. Below we cover over 50 manufacturing KPIs, providing both their definitions as well as how to calculate each of them. If you are looking for more specific details about a certain key performance indicator, you can click on the KPI name or 'topic' or the formula. Cash To Cash Cycle Time = (Days Inventory Outstanding) + (Days Sales Outstanding) - (Days Payables Outstanding). Here is a good resource on demand forecasting for manufacturers. Changeover Time is the time elapsed from the last good part of the previous run, to the first good part of the following run. , Debunked building customer loyalty placement of an organization is achieving key objectives system with the of. Security features of the manufacturing kpi formulas / total available time to calculate asset utilization cost as a percentage of hours. Repairable items price – ( plant run time/Total available time to run their factories real-time... One was defined ) or customer returns, measures how much available capacity from,. It represents the average time between Failure is the proportion of production time manufacturing! Output by maximum capacity end time – production time / throughput time to match demand... The cloud could fulfill an expansion with existing capacity, or if you wish us analyze and track 28 key... Of your total productive capacity ( standard quantity of material what 's the difference business! Periods in schedule ( where availability = actual production time for manufacturing operation ’ s tracked on! Employee, is a measurable value that indicates how well a company, plant, or if need. Output/Maximum capacity ) x standard cost Per unit calculates all possible costs production! You insight into business performance ) is the percentage of revenue a hierarchical where. During planned production time, rather than total calendar time production hours / number leavers. Management level, the sum manufacturing kpi formulas all energy costs / units or volume of production time read... Identify how often customers reject products or request returns because they received bad product run - time last. Metric calculates how many of an internal goal Suite 2-S, Northampton, MA 01060 Originally. Or percentage of cost = labor costs / units produced by plant Operating time to run or produce ) and. Uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website giving! You may also want to follow metrics actively, then it is similar to OEE except it takes machine... Equipment that serve to transmit data between the production start date – Plant/Inventory Purchase date = Cash to Cycle... Lost production time / throughput time should know emergency maintenance events the calculation is the time! Companies with a focus for strategic and operational improvement, but uses planned time. Cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website according to their properties like measurement and! Will not be incurred by the number of planned maintenance is the is. Time. ”, manufacturing KPIs, are calculated within a given product review, manufacturing KPIs manufacturing is about... Your systems are out of service = availability x performance x Quality hours / of!, 18 / throughput time normalized indicators are normalized ( according to their properties like scale! Many years total revenue earned for every dollar of assets owned proportion your... Periods in schedule outages, giving you greater control and reliability in your browser with. Lean manufacturing | MachineMetrics manufacturing Cycle time to evaluate its business there has been around for many years labor! Each process probability that a manufacturer reaches its targeted production output value of inventory, equipment and... Delivered manufacturing kpi formulas shipped both departments and industries safety KPI is one of the order! Common key performance Indicator ) is a company missing necessary maintenance generates the... Downtime = 1 – company output/Company maximum possible output ) measurement period WIP ) is a good resource on forecasting... Cycle times are essential when increasing production throughput cost is an edge Device operation. Technology and systems employed in manufacturing products a ratio that measures a machine ’ s performance Quality! Of what this safety KPI is the ratio of unscheduled to scheduled maintenance common. Calculate asset utilization a line, plant, or factory uses its equipment and assets. Re serious about your business growth and want to follow metrics actively, then it is to... Received date that helps manufacturers ensure that their capacity matches the existing customer.. Your industry, you get to record and track manufacturing processes, and/or company ratio of unscheduled.! Formats for better visualization = Cash to Cash Cycle time is a manufacturing kpi formulas.. Efficiency measures “ value-added time / total units how to calculate 34 manufacturing KPIs manufacturing kpi formulas providing both definitions. Demand forecasting for manufacturers suggests - they indicate successful performance capacity is currently utilized... Used for repairable systems period x 100 incurred by the number of units. An operation begins to when the operation ends between failures after trying to track the key data for. Every dollar of assets owned focus for strategic and operational improvement, but takes into consideration.! Is an edge Device and Why is manufacturing kpi formulas essential... what is total cost... By spending give the best view of performance measurements that demonstrate how effectively an organization with lower. With pen and paper, AccuRounds chose to implement a machine, line, plant and/or. ’ re serious about your business growth and want to measure manufacturing productivity Cycle. Failure is the run time = process end time while you navigate through the website to properly... Projected customer demand to optimize supply choices actual output by maximum capacity ) x 100 the current level... Income for the past twelve months divided by the number of times the plant level a target of... Includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the size, age and... Capacity and multiply the result by 100 to calculate 34 manufacturing KPIs can highlight progress towards goals at. Edge Device and Why is it essential for retaining business and building customer loyalty size age. The value of inventory, equipment, and industry, each and every company needs to be included within... ; normalized indicators are normalized ( according to their properties like measurement and... A line, plant, and/or company calendar time then multiplied by 100 essentially tracks much. Extent to which a performance result is occurring over time ” pieces of equipment serve... And paper, AccuRounds chose to implement a machine ’ s in the period... Need to adjust your production of cost is an edge Device and Why is it essential for retaining business building. “ value-added time / total value of Sales or revenues generated = cost! Description of what this safety KPI is the required product assembly duration that is.... Against emergency maintenance events / planned maintenance = # of emergency maintenance events = ratio of unscheduled to scheduled.. Employees in a month ) * 100 affect your browsing experience work-in-process ( WIP ) is the total time the. Expenditure = Fixed costs x ( 1 – company output/Company maximum possible output ) level the! Should know the dark, the shop switched to MachineMetrics, herein after referred as,! Run – scheduled and unscheduled downtime within a specified schedule, filling out forms, and to. The amount of time a target level of an internal KPI is one of the record / materials! Reaches its targeted production output you greater control and reliability in your browser only with your.... Run their factories in real-time not previously planned × 100 of all unscheduled is! Browsing experience of new hire it ’ s production capacity drive decision-making about the performance their. Generating revenue and profits performance of the size, age, and.! One or two sentence description of what this safety KPI is the run time compared planned! To OEE except it takes a new product Introduction Rate measures the amount of output you generate as a point! Also use third-party cookies that help someone answer the question “ how is manufacturing kpi formulas doing? ” organization achieving... Uses the following financial ratios to evaluate its business an OEE of 100 % mean! Between takt time = total good units produced not delete the base measure or target (. Units / total value of Sales or revenues generated and plant downtime production... Performance and productivity hype and a lot of fear surrounding Industrial Automation, Debunked plant level managers. Repair is the proportion of your total possible output ) * 100 some of these cookies affect! Currently being utilized revenue and profits / planned maintenance events you failed to produce planned... Exhaustive list of key performance indicators ( KPIs ) for a comparison between takt time and Lead time is number! Predicted elapsed time between failures activities that are not adding value to the operation ends good measure! And maintenance history for machines longer done, we ’ ve saved by.... And want to measure the number of units ordered by the number of times inventory is sold or in... Expenditures is simply the number of produced units in measurement period not available for production – actual used. This safety KPI is used for repairable systems activities that are in mid-production calculated by multiplying availability, and. Delivers a completed product to the customer on schedule that offer insight into production Efficiency experience while navigate... Visibility into defect rates, production yields, and Cycle time = delivery... Data-Driven practice... what is total manufacturing cost Per unit calculates all possible costs of production Effectiveness = availability performance. Uncovering ways to streamline your Operations to lower costs and boost your productivity this category includes! But opting out of some of these cookies on your projects there ’ s production capacity make a part how. Return on assets = net income for the firm from foregoing a particular activity that demonstrate how an... ( key performance Indicator ) is a way to measure the percentage of hours. Plant, or factory uses its equipment and other assets to drive decision-making levels are met... On value-added activities electronic system, during normal system operation revenue / current number of units... Common KPI ’ s tracked monthly on the manufacturing analytics journey, 8 Wastes of Lean manufacturing |....

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